ICING CONDITIONS

Icing Conditions

Icing conditions is one of the most dangerous environmental factors that can affect a plane. Once encountered, the pilot has very limited options to deal with the situation. 

How does it form?

Ice forms when droplets are exposed to near or below zero temperatures, freezing to a solid state. According to NASA (2016), "Ice typically forms on an aircraft in flight when the aircraft surface collides with dater droplets that have remained liquid although they are below the freezing point (supercooled water)" (p. 1)

What are the types of Icing?

There are 3 types: Induction icing, structural and instrument. Inside the structural icing we can find different forms of ice such as clear ice, rime ice, mix ice and frost.

The reason I chose ice formation is because it has caused several accidents, as it can severely affect the air flow in the airfoil by changing its shape, reducing lift and increasing its weight. Instruments can be blocked by ice, causing inaccurate or false readings, which can be fatal in IMC.
If the static port or pitot tube becomes clogged in a GA aircraft, the pilot would lose airspeed, altitude and vertical speed indicator. Induction ice, which clogs the venturi, air filter and the fuel distribution unit, reduces engine performance to marginal levels and can even cause an engine failure.

Few GA aircraft have the ability to deal with icing conditions, specially structural icing, so the FAA recommends to avoid flying through areas of potential icing, even if the risk is minimum. Additionally, pilots must be aware of the appropriate procedure established by the manufacturer if they encounter this conditions airborne. 

References
Aviation Weather Center (n.d.). Icing. Retrieved from
https://www.weather.gov/source/zhu/ZHU_Training_Page/icing_stuff/icing/icing.htm
Federal Aviation Administration (2020). Seminar: Icing. Retrieved from
https://www.faasafety.gov/gslac/ALC/course_content.aspx?cID=33&sID=152&preview=true
NASA (2016). Basic Icing Physics. Retrieved from https://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/1_1_2_2.html

 (Links to an external site.)

F

Air Traffic Control Entities

There are several air traffic control entities. On this blog I would like to talk about two specific ones: Flight Service and Automated Terminal Information Service. Personally I consider Flight Service one of the most important to consider prior to any flight, mainly for General Aviation. They can offer a variety of services, but one key aspect is the weather briefings. It is vital for a pilot to gather all the necessary information regarding weather conditions before making the decision of flying or not. This becomes an excellent tool for student pilots, who may not be able to understand weather charts, so having a briefer stating all relevant conditions is helpful. 

According to the FAA (2020):
Flight Service communicates directly with pilots for pilot briefings, flight plans, inflight advisory services, search and rescue initiation, aircraft emergencies, and Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs). Flight Service provides services in Alaska by government personnel and by a contract service provider (Leidos) in the continental U.S. (CONUS), which includes Puerto Rico and Hawaii (p. 1).

However, not every controlling entity must be human. The Automated Terminal Information Service provides pilots with important information of the airfield conditions. Winds, temperature, pressure, runways in use, NOTAMS, closures and advisories are some of the information transmitted by controllers in an automated recording. This information is updated every hour or as needed. 

Both services give the pilot information regarding weather, so he/she can decide the best course of action. However, being able to file flight plans, talk to a briefer and initiate rescue services are unique features offered by the Flight Services stations. ATIS just gives a glimpse of the airfield's situation and that is why is it used while airborne. However, prior to a flight or even in the air, gathering information from a Flight Services station is always the best and more complete way of informing yourself.


(Forbes, 2016)

References

FAA (2020). Flight Service. Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/systemops/fs/
Forbes (2016). Air Traffic Control Reform Is Not A Lost Cause Yet. But It's A Cause In Need Of A Champion. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielreed/2018/03/29/air-traffic-control-reform-is-not-a-lost-cause-yet-but-its-a-cause-in-need-of-a-champion/#1caadace3514

Airport Wildlife Management

Airport Wildlife Management

Airports all around the world rely on thousands of day-to-day tasks that must be done to operate safely and efficiently. One clear example of this is wildlife control. Airports are one biggest and complex infrastructures, and the fact that they are open spaces makes them vulnerable to wildlife incursions. The most common type of wildlife in the U.S. are birds, coyotes, and house pets. These animal incursions in airport property or near it pose a major risk for aircrafts. One of the most famous accidents in the United States was U.S. Airways flight 1549, in which a A320 encountered a flock of birds a few hundred feet after take-off. Birds entered both engines severely damaging it, causing the aircraft to land on the Hudson River.

Is because of the danger that wildlife represent to airport operations that managers and staff have designed several countermeasures. Visual deterrents have become the best way to prevent this animals from entering to runways and taxiways. According to Devault L. Travis (2013) "visual deterrent are generally intended to provoke a fear response. Examples include scarecrows or other human forms, object movement, animal effigies, methods that provoke neophobia, and methods that combine movement and neophobia" (p. 11). Airports like London Heathrow for example, employ sound signals to scare birds and have constant patrols all around the airport to identify and mitigate this threat.

However, there are many other methods to accomplish this task. Animals have different sensory systems and responses to the environment, so one method can not work for every species. Different targeted methods are applied to the specific need of the airport.



References
Devault L., T. (2013). Wildlife in Airport Environments: Preventing Animal-Aircraft Collisions through Science-Based  Management. John Hopkins University Press.
Taylor, J. (2018). London Heathrow Airport reveals expansion masterplan. CNN. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/heathrow-airport-expansion-plans-revealed-intl-scli-gbr/index.html

PARTT 147 ACT

PROMOTING AVIATION REGULATIONS FOR TECHNICAL TRAINING 2019

Personally, I consider the PARTT 147 Act of 2019 (Promoting Aviation Regulations for Technical Training) an important change in aviation regulation. Maintenance is an area not commonly considered when talking about aviation, but they are the doctors that keep our industry safe and sound.

Nevertheless, in the past 20 years mechanics have faced a major gap between what they were taught in their schools and what they encountered in the airline job. Training became outdated as consequence of the evolving technologies in the industry. Manufacturers redesigning their aircraft constantly and airlines meeting the increasing demand for air travel has created an constantly changing landscape. Newer and more effective methods needed to be created, and in response, Congress created passed this bill.

According to ATEC group (2019):The Promoting Aviation Regulations for Technical Training (PARTT) 147 Act (S.3043/H.R.5427) would direct the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to replace current training requirements with a new, community-drafted regulation that would establish a performance-based oversight system. Under the new law, aviation maintenance technician schools certificated and governed by Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations part 147, would have the flexibility to teach content that is reflective of today’s high-tech environment (p.1).

This new Act promoted new guidelines for schools in order to educate highly professional mechanics that are able to face modern technologies. Creating a system in which first-hand experience along with close supervision was key to enable mechanics to have the necessary set of skills.

References

ATEC (2019). Congress Introduces New Legislation to Modernize 50-year-old Aviation Maintenance Training Regulation. Aviation Pros. https://www.atec-amt.org/news/congress-introduces-legislation-to-modernize-50-year-old-aviation-maintenance-training-regulation

United States Congress (2019).  S.3043 - Promoting Aviation Regulations for Technical Training (PARTT) 147 Act of 2019. https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/3043/text

Human Factors

 HUMAN FACTORS

Human factors has gained an important role in modern aviation. According to the FAA "Human Factors is defined as a “multidisciplinary effort to generate and compile information about human capabilities and limitations and apply that information to equipment, systems, facilities, procedures, jobs, environments, training, staffing, and personnel management for safe, comfortable, and effective human performance” (p. 1). 

Personally, I define human factors as anything related that affects  performance that is unrelated to technical skills. In past decades, the main focus of airlines, federal agencies and manufacturers was on technical skills. Training was targeted to improve only the pilot´s handling and knowledge of the airplane and its system. Nowadays training has diversified into several layers, taking into account that accidents occur mostly for pilot error. Training is now developed in a way that takes into consideration the human factor of aircraft operation. One key aspect of this is communication, which is part of Crew Resource Management. 

One clear example of the importance of group communication is during critical phases of flight. The FAA established a mandatory regulation: below 10,000 ft. conversations inside the cockpit should only be related to the operation of the aircraft. During emergencies communications must be even more efficient in order to convey just the necessary information to controllers and crew in order to ensure the best possible outcome. 

References

Federal Aviation Administration (n.d.). Role of Human Factor in the FAA. http://www.hf.faa.gov/media/RoleOfHF-FAA.pdf 

Aviation Consulting Group (n.d.). [Image of different words]. Aviation Consulting Group. https://www.tacgworldwide.com/Human-Factors-Training

Intelligence and CBP

Intelligence and Customs and Border Protection 

One of the rising threats in aviation, specially in civil transportation, is the rise in illegal immigrants. Thousand of immigrants access through ports of entry in the U.S. with short term visas and unlawfully remain in the country after their permit expires. There has been a significant rise in this cases as the affordability of air travel increases and since there are some countries that are in domestic conflict. According to Robert Warren, there has been a major increase in undocumented population in India and Venezuela, causing a rise in illegal overstays in the United States.

 (Warren,2019)

This represents a major threat to Americans, as a considerable percentage of these immigrants often commit criminal activities and are involved in drug trafficking. Intelligence plays an important role here. Intelligence agencies can identify countries of risk, which are more likely to have undocumented immigrants,people trying to overstay or criminals trying to lay low, and order restrictions or more exhaustive interviews when applying for the visa. These agencies must work conjunctly with Customs and Border Protection agents, as they are the first line of defense in all ports of entry. Identifying this risk groups  allows CBP agents in airports and other ports to better target their screenings, interviews and inspections. 

Intelligence efforts needs multilateral work, so airlines must also be included to share any suspicious activities during flight.

References

Warren, R. (2019). Sharp Multilayer Decline in Undocumented Suggests Progress at US-Mexico Border, Not a National Emergency. Center for Migration Studies. 

Aircraft Systems: Oil System

OIL SYSTEM

One of the most important systems in an aircraft is the oil system. In this blog. In this blog I will be talking about the importance of this system in an airplane. The main purpose of the oil system is to lubricate the engine,in other words, to create a layer between metal parts to avoid engine overheat and damage.

(CFI Notebook, n.d.)

The Cessna 172 for example, uses a wet sump oil system, which essentially means that the oil sump is located inside the engine. Oil is drawn from the sump into the engine driven oil pump. Then it goes to through a bypass valve and depending on the oil's temperature. If it cold, the valve allows the fluid to go directly to the filter, but if it is cold it first has to go through the oil cooler. Then it goes to the full flow oil filter if installed and through engine parts. The pressure relief valve allows excessive oil to return to the sump to regulate engine oil pressure. Residual oil goes back to the sump by gravity flow.

Maintenance for this system is fairly easy and can be done without a decent period of time. Pilots can check the oil level prior to the flight and the cockpit is equipped with a oil pressure and temperature gauge. Nevertheless, in flight problems with the oil system are a common cause for engine failure, specially in GA. The C172 doesn't have a oil quantity indicator, so the first sign of an issue is a drop in oil pressure. A decrease in  pressure means that less fluid is flowing through the engine parts, causing an engine overheat. Metal parts in the engine start to lose this layer of coating and friction starts to rise. The oil temperature gauge will start rising as well and once the oil level is so low, air will start entering the pressure indicator, causing a fluctuation in the gauge. Engine damage is only a matter of seconds at this point, so pilots must take immediate action as soon as they detect any issue with the oil. Once this lubricating fluid is absent, there is nothing protecting the engine parts.

References
Cessna (1976). Pilot's Operating Handbook Cessna Skyhawk. Kansas, USA.
CFI Notebook (n.d.) [Image of the wet-sump system]. Retrieved from https://www.cfinotebook.net/notebook/operation-of-aircraft-systems/lubrication

Oscar Cubas